Jagirdar Holder of a "jagir" under the Mughals. Jaziya A religious tax paid by all the "Zimmis". Jagir Mughal equivalent to the iqta of the Delhi Sultans. Jama Total land revenue levied or expected from an estate or area.
Jamabandi Settlement of the amount of revenue assessed upon an estate or village or district.
Kankut It was a method of revenue calculation in which the cultivator and the government official arrived at a general estimate of the produce of the whole area on the basis of sample survey by mutual agreement, and government's share was accordingly fixed.
Kulkarni Village accountant in western India and the Deccan.
Kharaj Land revenue in the Muslim ruled states of medieval India.
Khums Traditionally one-fifth share of the State in the war booty and treasure troves, mines, etc. but became fourfifth from the time of Ala-ud-din Khalji Kamiya Bonded agricultural labourer of eastern India.
Kanamdar Holder of land tenure under the zamindars (jenmis) in Kerala. During the term of the tenure (usually 12 years) the kanamdar paid the jenmi a lower rent than other tenants. For, at the beginning of the term he paid the jenmi a lump sum (the 'Kanam') and the rent he had to pay was accordingly reduced. The kanamdar either cultivated the land himself or let it out to other tenants such as "Pattamdars".
Khudkashta A peasant who was a permanent resident of the village and had ownership rights of his lands and implements and paid land revenue to the state directly in Mughal India. In Maharashtra he was called 'Mirasdar' (holders of 'Miras' lands), and in Rajasthan as 'Gharuhala' or 'Gaveti'.
Kofra A tenant with certain customary rights in his land in eastern India.
Khatbandi Indenture regulations which bound the artisans of Eastern India to sell their products exclusively to the English East India Company from the late 1770s onwards.
Karkhana Royal factory where different types of goods were manufactured for the royal court and the army under the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals.
Kaulnama Written voucher granted to revenue payers specifying the terms of their payments and the amounts.
Khalisa Crown land or land held and managed directly by the state.
Mahalwari It was a system of land revenue assessment in which the unit of assessment was a 'mahal' or estate but not an individual holding. Under the system, the responsibility for the payment of revenue was collective, and the government reserved the right to periodically revise the revenue demand. It was introduced by the British in the Gangetic valley, the Punjab, North-Western Province, and parts of Central India.
Malguzar Holder of "malguzari", Le. revenue engagement right, in northern and central India, under the British.
Mamlatdar Non-hereditary revenue official in charge of district or sub-district in western India and Deccan under the Marathas.
Muqaddam Village headman in north India, also called "Khot".
Muzarian Share-cropper in Mughal India.
Mahajan Wholesale merchant or big banker in eastern, northern and western India.
Marwari Native of Marwar in Rajasthan who followed the business of banker, merchant and broker.
Madad-i-Maash Land whose revenues were assigned by the State to the religious and learned persons or religious and benevolent institutions.
Malikana Special allowance assigned to the zamindar by the State out of the land revenue because of his superior right over the land.
Mandi Wholesale market Manotidar A banker or money lender who provided
guarantee or stood security to the intermediary revenue collector after receiving a premium (manoti) for that purpose from the latter.
Milki Proprietorship or ownership especially of land. Mohur Gold coin.
Muafi Revenue-free holdings.
Mukarari Tenure at fixed rates of rent or revenue.
Nasaq In this method the revenue payable by the cultivator was calculated on the basis of past experience.
Nattar A person belonging to the local ruling class and dominating local land and people in Tamil Nadu.
Nazrana Gift usually from inferior to superior. Force contribution.
Palegar or Poligar Petty chieftain or zamindar who enjoyed hereditary right of revenue collection in South India.
Patel or Patil Village headman in western India and Deccan.
Patwari Village accountant in northern and central India.
Pahi A peasant who was basically an 'outsider' but cultivated the rented lands in a village either while staying in the neighbouring village or by staying in the same village in Mughal India. In Maharashtra he was known as "Upari".
Patnidar Holder of a "patni" or undertenure in a zamindari in some parts of eastern India (e.g. Burdwan dist.)
Paikar Merchant agents concerned with buying goods from artisans in eastern India.
Monday, November 30, 2009
ECONOMIC TERMS OF HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Ayagar System It was a socio-economii: system which originated first in Karnataka region in ancient periods and then spread to Tamil and Andhra regions in the medieval period. It meant that the requirements of the rural population in certain goods and social services were met by a staff of professionals, who were remunerated not with the payment for work done, but summarily with a fraction of gross agricultural produce called "Ayam". All village artisans and menials together with the community administrative staff were therefore known by the common name of "Ayagars" (receivers of the 'ayam').
Amil Common name for revenue collection during medieval period and early British period.
Abwab Miscellaneous cesses and imposts levied by the zamindars and public officials.
Aurang Depot for manufactured goods or localised manufacturing area.
Batuta System Similar to the ayagar system, it was prevalent in Western India and Deccan during the medieval period. Under this system a fixed annual share of each peasant family's corn and garden produce called "Baluta", was permanently assigned for the subsistence of about 12 village servants and artisans called "Balutadars". They were not employed by the individual peasants' families but by the village as a whole and were expected to serve villagers whenever required in their respective capacities fixed by their castes.
Batai It was one of the several methods of revenue calculation and collection that was prevalent in medieval India. In this crop was divided between the cultivator and the government in different ways either before or after the harvest. It was also known as the Galla Bakshi system.
Bhagdari It was a system under which "bhagdars" (partners) were collectively, not individually, responsible for payment of revenue to the government.
Bargadar Share cropper in Eastern India. Having the status of a tenant-at-will, he occupied the land only as long as the landowner allowed.
Bhagdar Partner shareholder of a joint village in some parts of western India. Also called 'Patidars' and 'Narwadars'.
Bania Merchant throughout the sub-continent. In some areas he also acted as the banker or money changer.
Banjara Merchant who specialised in the carrying (caravan) trade, particularly in grain, slat and cattle, throughout India.
Bhaiachara Brotherhood holding lands or certain rights and privileges as common property.
Bigha Measure of land area, varying widely but never more than an acre.
Chauth One-fourth of the land revenue of an undefined belt of land paid to the Marathas by the Mughals and other native rulers so that those areas would not be subjected to Maratha raids.
Cartaze System A system in which every Indian ship sailing to a destination not reserved by Portuguese for their own trade had to buy a pass (cartaze) from the Portuguese viceroy of Goa if it was to avoid the seizure and confiscation of its merchandise.
Chetti or Chettiar Merchant of South India. Chowki Customs outpost.
Cowries Conch shells used as a medium of exchange. Dahsala A revenue system in which the average produce of different crops as well as the average prices of the past 10 years were calculated and One-third of the average produce in terms of cash was collected by the State as the land revenue. It was introduced by Akbar in his 24th year of reign.
Danabandi It was a revenue system in which not the actual crop (as in the Batai system) but the estimated crop was divided between the government and the cultivator. During the British period the zamindars under the permanent settlement increasingly demanded payment of their share of estimated crop not in kind but in cash at market rates of the certain periods of the year which proved disastrous to the cultivators.
Desai or Deshmukh Principal hereditary revenue officer of a district (sarkar) or sub-district (Pargana) in western India and Deccan.
Deshpande Hereditary accountant of revenue collection at the district or subdistrict level in Western India or Deccan.
Dadni System The system in which merchants (both Indian and European) gave cash and raw material advances (dadan) to the artisans and later bought the finished products. Though it originated and grew in Bengal, later it spread to other parts of India as well. It is not the same as the "putting out" system in so far as the transactions ; t covered were still sales, with the artisan retaining con
'rable independence.
Dumdupat A rule under which no debtor was liable to pay an amount of interest exceeding the principal or original loan itself. Prevalent in western India.
Dalai Broker middleman in commercial transactions. Daroga Head of police, customs or excise outpost. Diwani Right to collect revenue of a province. Farman Royal order or decree.
Grantidar Person holding land tenure (granti) directly
under the government or zamindar in some parts of eastern India (e.g. Jessore dist.). In other parts of eastern India, these tenure holders were known by different names such as "Jatedar" in Rangpur dist., 'Haoladars' in Bakaraganj dist., "Gatchdass" in Purnea dist., "Mandals" in Midnapore dist. etc. These people were mostly big tenure holders who depended considerably on hired labour for the cultivation of their lands. Their origins were largely associated willi large-scale reclamation of wasteland particularly in the early part of British period.
Goldar Wholesale merchant owning a warehouse (gola) Ganj Mart or trade centre or market.
Hali or Haliya Bonded agricultural labourer of Western India.
Hundi An indigenous bill of exchange in Mughal India it promised payment after a specific period (2 months 0] less) at a particular place allowing a discount whicl included interest, insurance charges and cost of transmis. sion of money. Hundis increasingly became the standarc form of payment in major commercial transactions in 18ft century. In the long distance trade, they not only met thE requirements of an expanding demanc!. for credit, bu reduced the risks involved in the transmission of cash distant places. Their business was mainly in the hands 0 the professional money changers or bankers, called thE "Sarrafs" or "Shroffs".
Hasil Land revenue actually collected or realised from an estate or area. Hat Periodic village fair.
Ijara It means practice of revenue farming. According to this practice, the right to farm or collect revenue wal granted temporarily to the highest bidder in an auction bJ the government or the zamindar of the jagirdar. In retun for this function, the ijaradar (revenue farmer) was re warded with a commission of 4 to 6 per cent and a fev other benefits. Having its origins in the reign of Shah Jahan it became common during Aurangzeb's period and unde the later Mughals. The British also used this practice for some time in eastern India.
Ijaradar Revenue farmer in eastern India.
Iqtadar Holders of an 'igta' under the Delhi Sultans Also known as "Muqti".
Inam Revenue free land or some gift from superior inferior.
Iqta Unit of land whose revenues were assigned t( government officials in lieu of their salaries in the Delli Sultanate.
Jajmani System It was a reciprocal system of prescribe rights and obligsrt1ons-between specific rural families.
Amil Common name for revenue collection during medieval period and early British period.
Abwab Miscellaneous cesses and imposts levied by the zamindars and public officials.
Aurang Depot for manufactured goods or localised manufacturing area.
Batuta System Similar to the ayagar system, it was prevalent in Western India and Deccan during the medieval period. Under this system a fixed annual share of each peasant family's corn and garden produce called "Baluta", was permanently assigned for the subsistence of about 12 village servants and artisans called "Balutadars". They were not employed by the individual peasants' families but by the village as a whole and were expected to serve villagers whenever required in their respective capacities fixed by their castes.
Batai It was one of the several methods of revenue calculation and collection that was prevalent in medieval India. In this crop was divided between the cultivator and the government in different ways either before or after the harvest. It was also known as the Galla Bakshi system.
Bhagdari It was a system under which "bhagdars" (partners) were collectively, not individually, responsible for payment of revenue to the government.
Bargadar Share cropper in Eastern India. Having the status of a tenant-at-will, he occupied the land only as long as the landowner allowed.
Bhagdar Partner shareholder of a joint village in some parts of western India. Also called 'Patidars' and 'Narwadars'.
Bania Merchant throughout the sub-continent. In some areas he also acted as the banker or money changer.
Banjara Merchant who specialised in the carrying (caravan) trade, particularly in grain, slat and cattle, throughout India.
Bhaiachara Brotherhood holding lands or certain rights and privileges as common property.
Bigha Measure of land area, varying widely but never more than an acre.
Chauth One-fourth of the land revenue of an undefined belt of land paid to the Marathas by the Mughals and other native rulers so that those areas would not be subjected to Maratha raids.
Cartaze System A system in which every Indian ship sailing to a destination not reserved by Portuguese for their own trade had to buy a pass (cartaze) from the Portuguese viceroy of Goa if it was to avoid the seizure and confiscation of its merchandise.
Chetti or Chettiar Merchant of South India. Chowki Customs outpost.
Cowries Conch shells used as a medium of exchange. Dahsala A revenue system in which the average produce of different crops as well as the average prices of the past 10 years were calculated and One-third of the average produce in terms of cash was collected by the State as the land revenue. It was introduced by Akbar in his 24th year of reign.
Danabandi It was a revenue system in which not the actual crop (as in the Batai system) but the estimated crop was divided between the government and the cultivator. During the British period the zamindars under the permanent settlement increasingly demanded payment of their share of estimated crop not in kind but in cash at market rates of the certain periods of the year which proved disastrous to the cultivators.
Desai or Deshmukh Principal hereditary revenue officer of a district (sarkar) or sub-district (Pargana) in western India and Deccan.
Deshpande Hereditary accountant of revenue collection at the district or subdistrict level in Western India or Deccan.
Dadni System The system in which merchants (both Indian and European) gave cash and raw material advances (dadan) to the artisans and later bought the finished products. Though it originated and grew in Bengal, later it spread to other parts of India as well. It is not the same as the "putting out" system in so far as the transactions ; t covered were still sales, with the artisan retaining con
'rable independence.
Dumdupat A rule under which no debtor was liable to pay an amount of interest exceeding the principal or original loan itself. Prevalent in western India.
Dalai Broker middleman in commercial transactions. Daroga Head of police, customs or excise outpost. Diwani Right to collect revenue of a province. Farman Royal order or decree.
Grantidar Person holding land tenure (granti) directly
under the government or zamindar in some parts of eastern India (e.g. Jessore dist.). In other parts of eastern India, these tenure holders were known by different names such as "Jatedar" in Rangpur dist., 'Haoladars' in Bakaraganj dist., "Gatchdass" in Purnea dist., "Mandals" in Midnapore dist. etc. These people were mostly big tenure holders who depended considerably on hired labour for the cultivation of their lands. Their origins were largely associated willi large-scale reclamation of wasteland particularly in the early part of British period.
Goldar Wholesale merchant owning a warehouse (gola) Ganj Mart or trade centre or market.
Hali or Haliya Bonded agricultural labourer of Western India.
Hundi An indigenous bill of exchange in Mughal India it promised payment after a specific period (2 months 0] less) at a particular place allowing a discount whicl included interest, insurance charges and cost of transmis. sion of money. Hundis increasingly became the standarc form of payment in major commercial transactions in 18ft century. In the long distance trade, they not only met thE requirements of an expanding demanc!. for credit, bu reduced the risks involved in the transmission of cash distant places. Their business was mainly in the hands 0 the professional money changers or bankers, called thE "Sarrafs" or "Shroffs".
Hasil Land revenue actually collected or realised from an estate or area. Hat Periodic village fair.
Ijara It means practice of revenue farming. According to this practice, the right to farm or collect revenue wal granted temporarily to the highest bidder in an auction bJ the government or the zamindar of the jagirdar. In retun for this function, the ijaradar (revenue farmer) was re warded with a commission of 4 to 6 per cent and a fev other benefits. Having its origins in the reign of Shah Jahan it became common during Aurangzeb's period and unde the later Mughals. The British also used this practice for some time in eastern India.
Ijaradar Revenue farmer in eastern India.
Iqtadar Holders of an 'igta' under the Delhi Sultans Also known as "Muqti".
Inam Revenue free land or some gift from superior inferior.
Iqta Unit of land whose revenues were assigned t( government officials in lieu of their salaries in the Delli Sultanate.
Jajmani System It was a reciprocal system of prescribe rights and obligsrt1ons-between specific rural families.
CLASSICAL WRITERS IN INDIAN LANGUAGES
Author Kautilya : Arthasastra Visakhadatta : Mudrarakshasa Hala : Suptasotka Panini : Ashtadhyayi Patanjali : Mahabhasya, Yoga-sutra Varahamihira : Brihat Sidhanta Aryabhatta : Surya Sidhanta Kalidasa (court poet of Chandragupta II) : Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava, Ritusamhara, Meghaduta, Malavikagnimitra Vikramorvashi, Sakuntalam Vatsyayana : Kamasutra Sudraka : Mrichchakatika Vishnu Sharma : Panchatantra Amar Simha (court poet of Chandragupta II) : Amarkosa Asvaghosha : Bhuddha Charita Charaka : Charaka Samhita Banabhatta (court poet of Harshavardhana) : Kadambari, Harshacharita Ravi Kirti (court poet of Pulakesin ll): Aihole Prasasti Harshavardhana : Priyadarsika, Ratnavali, Nagananda Bhavabhuti (court poet of Yasovarman of Kanauj): Uttararamacharita Dandin (court poet of Narasimhavarman) : Dasa Kumara Charita Bbaravi (court poet of Simhavishnu) : Kiratharjuneeyam Chand Bardai (court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan) : Prithvaraj Raso Jayadeva : Gita Govinda Rajashekhara (court poet of Mahipal) : Vidha Salabhanjika, Kavyamirnansa, Bala Ramayana, Bala Bharata Bilhana : VIkramanakadeva Charita |
IMPORTANT BATTLES IN INDIAN HISTORY
D.C.
327: Alexander the Great defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes
261: Asoka captured Kalinga after a bloody battle near Bhubaneswar
155 : "Menander, a Greek king invaded north western India an~ became the Indo-Greek ruler till 130 Be.
Medieval India
A.D.
455: Huna's first invasion in India
533: Yasodharman defeats Mihirkula (a Huna invader)
712: Invasion of Sind under the command of Mohammed-bin-Qasim
1178: Bhim, the ruler of Anhilwara, defeats Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghuri
1191: first Battle of Tarain in which Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghuri 1192: Second Battle of Tarain in which Muhammad Ghuri defeated Prithviraj Chauhan
1194: Battle of Chandawar in which Jaichand of Kannauj was defeated by Muhammad Ghuri
1202: Ikhtiyaruddin Bakhtiyar Khalji defeats the ruler of Bengal and Bihar
1526: First Battle of Panipat. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur
1527: Battle of Khanua. Rana Sanga was defeated by Babur
1529: Battle of Ghaghar. The Afghans were defeated by Babur
1539: Battle of Chausa. Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri I
1540: Battle of Kannauj or Bilgram. Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri, who now became the ruler of Delhi
1556: Second Battle of Panipat. Hemu was defeated by Akbar
1565: Battle of Talikota or Banihatti. Vijayanagar empire was defeated by the combined forces of five Muslim states.
1576: Battle of Haldighati. Rana Pratap was defeated by Akbar
1601: Battle of Asirgarh. Miran Bahadur Shah was defeated by Akbar
1615: Mewar submits to the Mughals. A treaty of peace was signed between Emperor Jahangir and Rana Amar Singh of Mewar
1649: Qandhar was lost to Persia by the Mughals
1659: Dara Shikoh killed by Aurangzeb
1665: Shivaji defeated by Raja Jai Singh and the Treaty of Purandhar is signed
Modern India
1707: Battle of Khod. Tara Bai defeated by Shahu
1724: Battle of Shakr-Kheda. Mubarak Khan defeated by Nizam-ul-Mulk
1737: Battle of Bhopal. The Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah defeated by Baji Rao
1739: Battle of Karnal. The Mughal army defeated by Nadir Shah
1740: Battle of Gharia. Fought between Sarfaraz Khan, Nawab of Bengal, and Alivardi Khan, Deputy Governor of Bihar, in which Sarfaraz Khan was killed.
1746-48: First Carnatic War. Fought between French and British forces. Madras was captured by French but returned to the English by the Treaty of Aix-Ia-Chapelle. It is famous for the battle of St. Thome, in which a small French army defeated the Nawab's large force
1749-54: Second Carnatic War. Initially the French under Dupleix had some successes but at last the English got a hold
1758-63: Third Carnatic War. French captured Fort St. David in 1758, but suffered badly at Wandiwash (1760)
1757: Battle of Plassey. The English forces under Robert Clive defeated the army of Siraj-uddaula
1761: Third battle of Panipat. Marathas were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali
1764: Battle of Buxar. The English under Munro defeated Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal, Shuja-ud-daula, Nawab of Avadh, and Shah Alam II, the Mughal emperor
1767-69: First Anglo-Mysore War. Contested between Haider Ali and the British
1760: Battle of Udgir. The Nizam was defeated by the Marathas
1775: Battle of Sindkhed between the Marathas and the Nizam. The Nizam was forced to
surrender some territories
1752-82: First Anglo-Maratha War. The British army was defeated. The humiliating Convention of Wadgoan (1779) was concluded. Peace was at last restored by the Treaty of Salbai
(1782)
1780-84: Second Anglo-Mysore War. Haider Ali died in the battle (1782) and the field was taken by his son TIpu Sultan. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Mangalore (1784)
1789-92: Third Anglo-Mysore War. TIpu Sultan was defeated (1792). The war came to a close with the Treaty of Seringapatam
1799: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. Tipu died fighting 1803-06: Second Anglo-Maratha war. The Marathas were defeated by the British
1814-16: Nepalese War. Between the English and the Gurkhas. The war came to an end with the Treaty of Sagauli
1817-19: Third Anglo-Maratha war. The Marathas were badly defeated by the British
1824-26 : First Anglo-Burmese War. The British defeated the Burmese. Peace was restored by the Treaty of Yandaboo
1839-42: First Anglo-Afghan War. The Afghan ruler Dost Muhammad was defeated by the
English
1845-46: First Anglo-Sikh War. The Sikhs were defeated by the English. The war was
ended by the Treaty of Lahore
1848-49 : Second Anglo-Sikh War. Sikhs were defeated and Punjab was annexed by the
British
1852: Second Anglo-Burmese War. The English were success_ful
1865: Third Anglo-Burmese War. The English
annexed Burma
1878-80: Second Anglo-Afghan war. The English suffered losses
1919-21: Third Anglo-Afghan War. The English though victorious did not benefit from the war.
327: Alexander the Great defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes
261: Asoka captured Kalinga after a bloody battle near Bhubaneswar
155 : "Menander, a Greek king invaded north western India an~ became the Indo-Greek ruler till 130 Be.
Medieval India
A.D.
455: Huna's first invasion in India
533: Yasodharman defeats Mihirkula (a Huna invader)
712: Invasion of Sind under the command of Mohammed-bin-Qasim
1178: Bhim, the ruler of Anhilwara, defeats Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghuri
1191: first Battle of Tarain in which Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghuri 1192: Second Battle of Tarain in which Muhammad Ghuri defeated Prithviraj Chauhan
1194: Battle of Chandawar in which Jaichand of Kannauj was defeated by Muhammad Ghuri
1202: Ikhtiyaruddin Bakhtiyar Khalji defeats the ruler of Bengal and Bihar
1526: First Battle of Panipat. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur
1527: Battle of Khanua. Rana Sanga was defeated by Babur
1529: Battle of Ghaghar. The Afghans were defeated by Babur
1539: Battle of Chausa. Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri I
1540: Battle of Kannauj or Bilgram. Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri, who now became the ruler of Delhi
1556: Second Battle of Panipat. Hemu was defeated by Akbar
1565: Battle of Talikota or Banihatti. Vijayanagar empire was defeated by the combined forces of five Muslim states.
1576: Battle of Haldighati. Rana Pratap was defeated by Akbar
1601: Battle of Asirgarh. Miran Bahadur Shah was defeated by Akbar
1615: Mewar submits to the Mughals. A treaty of peace was signed between Emperor Jahangir and Rana Amar Singh of Mewar
1649: Qandhar was lost to Persia by the Mughals
1659: Dara Shikoh killed by Aurangzeb
1665: Shivaji defeated by Raja Jai Singh and the Treaty of Purandhar is signed
Modern India
1707: Battle of Khod. Tara Bai defeated by Shahu
1724: Battle of Shakr-Kheda. Mubarak Khan defeated by Nizam-ul-Mulk
1737: Battle of Bhopal. The Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah defeated by Baji Rao
1739: Battle of Karnal. The Mughal army defeated by Nadir Shah
1740: Battle of Gharia. Fought between Sarfaraz Khan, Nawab of Bengal, and Alivardi Khan, Deputy Governor of Bihar, in which Sarfaraz Khan was killed.
1746-48: First Carnatic War. Fought between French and British forces. Madras was captured by French but returned to the English by the Treaty of Aix-Ia-Chapelle. It is famous for the battle of St. Thome, in which a small French army defeated the Nawab's large force
1749-54: Second Carnatic War. Initially the French under Dupleix had some successes but at last the English got a hold
1758-63: Third Carnatic War. French captured Fort St. David in 1758, but suffered badly at Wandiwash (1760)
1757: Battle of Plassey. The English forces under Robert Clive defeated the army of Siraj-uddaula
1761: Third battle of Panipat. Marathas were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali
1764: Battle of Buxar. The English under Munro defeated Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal, Shuja-ud-daula, Nawab of Avadh, and Shah Alam II, the Mughal emperor
1767-69: First Anglo-Mysore War. Contested between Haider Ali and the British
1760: Battle of Udgir. The Nizam was defeated by the Marathas
1775: Battle of Sindkhed between the Marathas and the Nizam. The Nizam was forced to
surrender some territories
1752-82: First Anglo-Maratha War. The British army was defeated. The humiliating Convention of Wadgoan (1779) was concluded. Peace was at last restored by the Treaty of Salbai
(1782)
1780-84: Second Anglo-Mysore War. Haider Ali died in the battle (1782) and the field was taken by his son TIpu Sultan. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Mangalore (1784)
1789-92: Third Anglo-Mysore War. TIpu Sultan was defeated (1792). The war came to a close with the Treaty of Seringapatam
1799: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. Tipu died fighting 1803-06: Second Anglo-Maratha war. The Marathas were defeated by the British
1814-16: Nepalese War. Between the English and the Gurkhas. The war came to an end with the Treaty of Sagauli
1817-19: Third Anglo-Maratha war. The Marathas were badly defeated by the British
1824-26 : First Anglo-Burmese War. The British defeated the Burmese. Peace was restored by the Treaty of Yandaboo
1839-42: First Anglo-Afghan War. The Afghan ruler Dost Muhammad was defeated by the
English
1845-46: First Anglo-Sikh War. The Sikhs were defeated by the English. The war was
ended by the Treaty of Lahore
1848-49 : Second Anglo-Sikh War. Sikhs were defeated and Punjab was annexed by the
British
1852: Second Anglo-Burmese War. The English were success_ful
1865: Third Anglo-Burmese War. The English
annexed Burma
1878-80: Second Anglo-Afghan war. The English suffered losses
1919-21: Third Anglo-Afghan War. The English though victorious did not benefit from the war.
HISTORICAL EPITHETS
HISTORICAL EPITHETS
Abhira South-east Gujarat (the Greeks called it Aberia) Abimukta Banaras
Acesines River Chenab. Identified with 'Asikni' of the
Rigveda
Achinta Ajanta (Central India)
Achiravati (also, Ajravati or Airavati) River Rapti in Oudh Agnipura (also, Mahishmati) Mahesh or Mahesvara, south
of Indore
Agravana Agra
Ahichchhatra (also, Chhatravati and Ahikshetra) Ramnagar
in Rohilkhand
Ajamati River Ajaya in Bengal
Akaravanti (or Daseraka) Malwa
Alava Airwa
Alexandria (also, Alasanda) Uchch. Also identified with
Hupian (present Opian), Beghram (north of Kabul) and
Bamian
Amaravati Nagarhara
Ambaligrama Arail (located on the opposite side of
Allahabad)
Ambara (Also, Birata) The country of Jaipur Anahila-Pattana (Also, Virawat-Pattana or Pattana)
Anihilwar (northern Baroda)
Ananta-Naga Islamabad
Anumakundapura (Also Benakataka and Orukkalu)
Warrangal
Aomos Ranighat (Peshawar district)
Aratta The Punjab
Arjikiya (Also, Uranjira) and Vipasa) River Beas Arunoda Garhwal
Audumvara Kutch
Avagana (or Kamboja) Afghanistan
Bahela Baghelkhand in Central India
Baisali (Also, Baniyagama and Bisala) Besad (Muzaffarpur
district, Bihar)
Balabhi (or Vamilapura) Wala or Wallay in Kathiawar,
Gujarat
Ballalapuri Rampala or Ballalabadi in Dacca district Banapura Mahabalipura or Mahabaleswara
Banavasi North Canara. Also, Kraunchapura in North
Kanara .
Banji (or Karura) Malabar coast
Baraha-kshetra Baramula in Kashmir
Barana Bulandshahr (punjab)
Barddhamana Vadhamana between Banaras and Allahabad,
also called Asthikagrama; identified with present
Vadvana in Kathiawar; a town in Malwa
Basya Bassein (Bombay province)
Batapipura Badami
Batsyapattana Kausambi (modem Kosambi-nagar or Kosam,
. west of Allahabad)
Bedagarbhapuri (Also, Bisvamitra-Asrama) Buxar
Behat River ]helum
Bhaganagara Hyderabad
Bhaktapura Bhatgaon
Bina River Krishna, the Tynna of Ptolemy; Almora Bitasta River ]helum
Champanagara Champa, Champapuri, Malini situated west
of Bhagalpur; also, Chandmaya or Chandnia in Bogra
district, Bengal
Chandelgada (Also, Charanadri) Chunar
Chandwar Firozabad, near Agra
Chaya Porbandar in Gujarat
Damila (Also Ugra and Mahasthana) Kerala, the Limurike
of Ptolemy
Devabandara Diu in Gujarat
Devapura Rajim (Raipur district)
Dhindhra Amer, Jaipur's ancient capital
Drishadvati River Ghagar
Dvarasamudra Halebid, Mysore's ancient capital Ekamrakanana Bhubaneshwar or Harakshetra Gadhipura Kanauj
Gauri River Panjkora that rises in Gilghit and flows be
tween Khonar and the Swat
Gautami River Godavari or its northern branch. Also called
Nanda and Gautami-Ganga
Gharapuri Elephanta Island
Girivrajapura Rajgir (Bihar); also, Rajgiri (Punjab) Gonardda Gonda in Oudh; also, the Punjab
Indrani Near Katwa in Burdwan district (Bengal) Indrapura Indore
Janasthana Aurangabad and the region between Krishna
and Godavari
Jasnaul Bara-Banki (in Oudh)
Jetuttara Nagari; earlier, capital of Mawar
Jimanagara Juner in Poona district
Kakanada Sanchi in Bhopal territory
Kalahagrama Kahalgaon or Colgong in Bhagalpur district Kalindi The Yamuna river
Kalki Tuticorin
Kanyakubja Parts of Kanauj-or Mahodaya
Kharki Aurangabad
Kikata Magadha (South Bihar)
Koli Aligarh
Kurukshetra Thaneswar
Kusahhavanapura Sultanpur
Lohitya River Brahmaputra
Mudhupuri Mathura
Madhyamika Nagari, near Chitore .
Magadhi River Son
Mahodadhi The Bay of Bengal
Marttanda Bavan or Martan or Matan near Islamabad in
Kashmir
Mauli The Rohtas hills
Mundu Chota-Nagpur. Ranchi district in particular Nandigrama Nundgaon in Oudh
Neleynda .Kottayam
Omkaranatha Mandhata
Panchavati Nasik
Paralipura Deoghar in Bengal
Paschimodadhi The Arabian Sea
Pradyumna-nagara Pandua in Hooghly district Pragvijaya Jyntea in Assam
Pralamba Mundore or Madawar
Pravarapura (also, Suryanagara) Srinagar Purushottama-kshetra (also Srikshetra) Puri in Orissa Rajanagara Ahmadabad
Rajapuri Rajauri, south of Kashmir
Ramagad-Gauda Balarampur in Oudh
Rishipattana (Isipatana of Buddhists) Sarnath Salvapura Alwar
Samugad Fatehahad, near Agra
Saptagrama Satgaon (Hooghly district)
Sarayu River Ghagra or Gogra in Oudh
Tamralipti (also, Bishnugriha) Tamluk in Midnapur district Tapani River Tapti
Tilaprastha Tilpat
Udandapura Bihar Town in Patna district
Udra (or Utkala) Orissa
Vijayanta Mt. Girnar in Kathiawar
Uragapura (also, Uraiyur) Tiruchchirappalli Utpalaranya Bithoor, near Kanpur
Yadava-giri Mailkote or Melukote in Mysore
Yajnapura Jajpur in Orissa
Yavana-Nagara Junagad in Gujarat
Yavanapura Jaunpura, near Banaras
Yayatipura Jajau near Kanpur
Abhira South-east Gujarat (the Greeks called it Aberia) Abimukta Banaras
Acesines River Chenab. Identified with 'Asikni' of the
Rigveda
Achinta Ajanta (Central India)
Achiravati (also, Ajravati or Airavati) River Rapti in Oudh Agnipura (also, Mahishmati) Mahesh or Mahesvara, south
of Indore
Agravana Agra
Ahichchhatra (also, Chhatravati and Ahikshetra) Ramnagar
in Rohilkhand
Ajamati River Ajaya in Bengal
Akaravanti (or Daseraka) Malwa
Alava Airwa
Alexandria (also, Alasanda) Uchch. Also identified with
Hupian (present Opian), Beghram (north of Kabul) and
Bamian
Amaravati Nagarhara
Ambaligrama Arail (located on the opposite side of
Allahabad)
Ambara (Also, Birata) The country of Jaipur Anahila-Pattana (Also, Virawat-Pattana or Pattana)
Anihilwar (northern Baroda)
Ananta-Naga Islamabad
Anumakundapura (Also Benakataka and Orukkalu)
Warrangal
Aomos Ranighat (Peshawar district)
Aratta The Punjab
Arjikiya (Also, Uranjira) and Vipasa) River Beas Arunoda Garhwal
Audumvara Kutch
Avagana (or Kamboja) Afghanistan
Bahela Baghelkhand in Central India
Baisali (Also, Baniyagama and Bisala) Besad (Muzaffarpur
district, Bihar)
Balabhi (or Vamilapura) Wala or Wallay in Kathiawar,
Gujarat
Ballalapuri Rampala or Ballalabadi in Dacca district Banapura Mahabalipura or Mahabaleswara
Banavasi North Canara. Also, Kraunchapura in North
Kanara .
Banji (or Karura) Malabar coast
Baraha-kshetra Baramula in Kashmir
Barana Bulandshahr (punjab)
Barddhamana Vadhamana between Banaras and Allahabad,
also called Asthikagrama; identified with present
Vadvana in Kathiawar; a town in Malwa
Basya Bassein (Bombay province)
Batapipura Badami
Batsyapattana Kausambi (modem Kosambi-nagar or Kosam,
. west of Allahabad)
Bedagarbhapuri (Also, Bisvamitra-Asrama) Buxar
Behat River ]helum
Bhaganagara Hyderabad
Bhaktapura Bhatgaon
Bina River Krishna, the Tynna of Ptolemy; Almora Bitasta River ]helum
Champanagara Champa, Champapuri, Malini situated west
of Bhagalpur; also, Chandmaya or Chandnia in Bogra
district, Bengal
Chandelgada (Also, Charanadri) Chunar
Chandwar Firozabad, near Agra
Chaya Porbandar in Gujarat
Damila (Also Ugra and Mahasthana) Kerala, the Limurike
of Ptolemy
Devabandara Diu in Gujarat
Devapura Rajim (Raipur district)
Dhindhra Amer, Jaipur's ancient capital
Drishadvati River Ghagar
Dvarasamudra Halebid, Mysore's ancient capital Ekamrakanana Bhubaneshwar or Harakshetra Gadhipura Kanauj
Gauri River Panjkora that rises in Gilghit and flows be
tween Khonar and the Swat
Gautami River Godavari or its northern branch. Also called
Nanda and Gautami-Ganga
Gharapuri Elephanta Island
Girivrajapura Rajgir (Bihar); also, Rajgiri (Punjab) Gonardda Gonda in Oudh; also, the Punjab
Indrani Near Katwa in Burdwan district (Bengal) Indrapura Indore
Janasthana Aurangabad and the region between Krishna
and Godavari
Jasnaul Bara-Banki (in Oudh)
Jetuttara Nagari; earlier, capital of Mawar
Jimanagara Juner in Poona district
Kakanada Sanchi in Bhopal territory
Kalahagrama Kahalgaon or Colgong in Bhagalpur district Kalindi The Yamuna river
Kalki Tuticorin
Kanyakubja Parts of Kanauj-or Mahodaya
Kharki Aurangabad
Kikata Magadha (South Bihar)
Koli Aligarh
Kurukshetra Thaneswar
Kusahhavanapura Sultanpur
Lohitya River Brahmaputra
Mudhupuri Mathura
Madhyamika Nagari, near Chitore .
Magadhi River Son
Mahodadhi The Bay of Bengal
Marttanda Bavan or Martan or Matan near Islamabad in
Kashmir
Mauli The Rohtas hills
Mundu Chota-Nagpur. Ranchi district in particular Nandigrama Nundgaon in Oudh
Neleynda .Kottayam
Omkaranatha Mandhata
Panchavati Nasik
Paralipura Deoghar in Bengal
Paschimodadhi The Arabian Sea
Pradyumna-nagara Pandua in Hooghly district Pragvijaya Jyntea in Assam
Pralamba Mundore or Madawar
Pravarapura (also, Suryanagara) Srinagar Purushottama-kshetra (also Srikshetra) Puri in Orissa Rajanagara Ahmadabad
Rajapuri Rajauri, south of Kashmir
Ramagad-Gauda Balarampur in Oudh
Rishipattana (Isipatana of Buddhists) Sarnath Salvapura Alwar
Samugad Fatehahad, near Agra
Saptagrama Satgaon (Hooghly district)
Sarayu River Ghagra or Gogra in Oudh
Tamralipti (also, Bishnugriha) Tamluk in Midnapur district Tapani River Tapti
Tilaprastha Tilpat
Udandapura Bihar Town in Patna district
Udra (or Utkala) Orissa
Vijayanta Mt. Girnar in Kathiawar
Uragapura (also, Uraiyur) Tiruchchirappalli Utpalaranya Bithoor, near Kanpur
Yadava-giri Mailkote or Melukote in Mysore
Yajnapura Jajpur in Orissa
Yavana-Nagara Junagad in Gujarat
Yavanapura Jaunpura, near Banaras
Yayatipura Jajau near Kanpur
Important Newspapers and Magazines
1. Bengal Gazette 1780
(India's first newspaper)
2. India Gazette 1780
3. Digdarshan 1881
4. Samachar Darpan 1818
5. Calcutta Journal1818
6. Samvad-Kaumadi 1821
7. Mirat-ul-Akhbar 1822
(first newspaper in Persian)
8. Bangdoot 1822
9. Brahmanical Magazine
10. Bombay Samachar 1822
11. Chandrika 1822
12. Jame Jamshed 1831
13. Darpan 1832
14. Bombay Times 1838
15. Rnst Goftar 1851
(first newspaper in Gujarati)
16. Vichar LAhari 1852
17. Hindu Patriot 1853
18. Som Prakash 1858
19. Indian Mirror 1862
20. Times of India 1861
21. Bangalee 1862
22. Indu Prakash 1862
23. Native Opinion 1864
24. Kavivachan Sudha 1867
25. Madras Mail 1868
26. Amrit Bazar Patrika 1868
27. Sadha Vani 1873
28. Ban.gadarshan 1873
29. Statesman 1875
30. Civil and Military Gazettee 1876
31. Hindi Pradeep 1877
32. Hindu 1878
33. Maratha 1881
34. Kesari 1881
35. Bangavasi 1881
36. Hindusthan
37. Modern Review
38. Indian Review
39. Swadeshamitram (Tamil) 1882
40. Sulabh Samachar -
41. Sanjibani 1883
42. Hindustan Standard 1899
43. Yugantar 1906
44. Sandhya 1906
45. Kal 1906
46. Pratap 1910
47. AI-Hilal 1912
48. AI-Bilag 1913
49. Gadar 1913
50. New India 1915
51. Commonweal 1915
52. Young India 1916
53. Indian Sociologist
54. Bande Mataram
55. Talwar
56. Free Hindustan
57. Hindustan Times 1923
58. Kranti 1927
(India's first newspaper)
2. India Gazette 1780
3. Digdarshan 1881
4. Samachar Darpan 1818
5. Calcutta Journal1818
6. Samvad-Kaumadi 1821
7. Mirat-ul-Akhbar 1822
(first newspaper in Persian)
8. Bangdoot 1822
9. Brahmanical Magazine
10. Bombay Samachar 1822
11. Chandrika 1822
12. Jame Jamshed 1831
13. Darpan 1832
14. Bombay Times 1838
15. Rnst Goftar 1851
(first newspaper in Gujarati)
16. Vichar LAhari 1852
17. Hindu Patriot 1853
18. Som Prakash 1858
19. Indian Mirror 1862
20. Times of India 1861
21. Bangalee 1862
22. Indu Prakash 1862
23. Native Opinion 1864
24. Kavivachan Sudha 1867
25. Madras Mail 1868
26. Amrit Bazar Patrika 1868
27. Sadha Vani 1873
28. Ban.gadarshan 1873
29. Statesman 1875
30. Civil and Military Gazettee 1876
31. Hindi Pradeep 1877
32. Hindu 1878
33. Maratha 1881
34. Kesari 1881
35. Bangavasi 1881
36. Hindusthan
37. Modern Review
38. Indian Review
39. Swadeshamitram (Tamil) 1882
40. Sulabh Samachar -
41. Sanjibani 1883
42. Hindustan Standard 1899
43. Yugantar 1906
44. Sandhya 1906
45. Kal 1906
46. Pratap 1910
47. AI-Hilal 1912
48. AI-Bilag 1913
49. Gadar 1913
50. New India 1915
51. Commonweal 1915
52. Young India 1916
53. Indian Sociologist
54. Bande Mataram
55. Talwar
56. Free Hindustan
57. Hindustan Times 1923
58. Kranti 1927
WEAKNESSES OF TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN INDIA
WEAKNESSES OF TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN INDIA
Labour movements played an important role during India's struggle for independence. However, these trade union movements had some limitations, which may be described as follows:
(i) Limited membership Trade Unions were established in limited areas. They were concentrated only in industrial areas, that too in the urban areas and in the organised sectors. They were unknown in rural and undeveloped areas. Only three per cent of industrial workers were associated with the labour organisations.
(ii) Small size of labour unions Large organisations were required to put pressure on the British government, because the latter had the potential to suppress even larger organisations. But, unfortunately, most of the trade unions in India were small which made them unable to put any significant pressure on the government. Further, these i organisations had restricted area of operation.
(iii) Small funds The absence of big funds was the , greatest weakness of the trade unions during this period. , Members of the unions were poor. The poverty made them' unable to contribute significantly to the funds of their
organisations.
(iv) Escapist attitude of the workers The British rule'
had ruined almost all rural industries, which forced the villagers to migrate to urban centres to make a livelihood. In urban centres, they did not stick to a particular job or establishment. They would leave the job or place very
frequently in favour of a job or place which promised them better wage prospects. Such a tendency of the labour weakened the trade union movement.
(v) Low wages During freedom struggle, there were only a few industries in the country. The employers of these few industries paid very low wages to the workers making their economic condition miserable. The workers were unable to pay even the small membership fee for the trade unions. Hence, they never joined any trade union.
(vi) Job through the contractors During the freedom struggle, the workers would get job through contractors. It was so because the migrated workers were not able to find work on their own. The job contractors used to be the supporters of the factory owners. Hence, the workers employed through the contractors were not able to participate in the labour movement.
(vii) Illiteracy Majority of the workers were illiterate. They were not aware of their rights. They did ~ot even know how much they should be paid for the wq,rk they did. The labour movement could hardly be expected'io pick
Labour movements played an important role during India's struggle for independence. However, these trade union movements had some limitations, which may be described as follows:
(i) Limited membership Trade Unions were established in limited areas. They were concentrated only in industrial areas, that too in the urban areas and in the organised sectors. They were unknown in rural and undeveloped areas. Only three per cent of industrial workers were associated with the labour organisations.
(ii) Small size of labour unions Large organisations were required to put pressure on the British government, because the latter had the potential to suppress even larger organisations. But, unfortunately, most of the trade unions in India were small which made them unable to put any significant pressure on the government. Further, these i organisations had restricted area of operation.
(iii) Small funds The absence of big funds was the , greatest weakness of the trade unions during this period. , Members of the unions were poor. The poverty made them' unable to contribute significantly to the funds of their
organisations.
(iv) Escapist attitude of the workers The British rule'
had ruined almost all rural industries, which forced the villagers to migrate to urban centres to make a livelihood. In urban centres, they did not stick to a particular job or establishment. They would leave the job or place very
frequently in favour of a job or place which promised them better wage prospects. Such a tendency of the labour weakened the trade union movement.
(v) Low wages During freedom struggle, there were only a few industries in the country. The employers of these few industries paid very low wages to the workers making their economic condition miserable. The workers were unable to pay even the small membership fee for the trade unions. Hence, they never joined any trade union.
(vi) Job through the contractors During the freedom struggle, the workers would get job through contractors. It was so because the migrated workers were not able to find work on their own. The job contractors used to be the supporters of the factory owners. Hence, the workers employed through the contractors were not able to participate in the labour movement.
(vii) Illiteracy Majority of the workers were illiterate. They were not aware of their rights. They did ~ot even know how much they should be paid for the wq,rk they did. The labour movement could hardly be expected'io pick
The Trade Union Movement
The trade union movement in India originated from a number of reasons. The working conditions in Indian factories, industries and mines were intolerably poor, with the British Government doing nothing much to improve the situation. Indian trade and industry witnessed growth after the First World War as imports to India reduced while its goods were in continual demand abroad. But all this failed to benefit the workers whose wages remained low. At the same time, the nationalist leaders realised that participation of workers was a must to strengthen the struggle. Thus the workers' cause now engaged the interest of nationalist leaders. Other factors that strengthened the workers' movement were the success of the Russian Revolution (1917) and the formation of USSR, and the setting up of the International Labour Organisation, in 1919, to safeguard workers' interests.
An investigation into the working conditions in factories was first demanded by the textile lobby of Lancashire. The First Factory (Industrial) Commission was set up in Bombay in 1875. Subsequently, the First Factory Act was passed in 1881, which largely aimed at prohibiting child labour while ignoring other important aspects such as women labour in factories. The ensuing disappointment was sought to be addressed by the Second Factory (Industrial) Commission of 1884. A conference of workers was called at Bombay by N.M. Lokhande for presenting a list of demands, including limited working hours, a weekly rest, a recess every day, compensation and punctual payment of wages, to the Commission. This is considered as the starting point of trade unionism in the country. The Second Factory Act of 1891 was another big disappointment in that though it stipulated working hours for women and children and fixed a weekly holiday, it failed to address concerns such as work hours for men.
The period 1918-24 witnessed the emergence of many trade unions to protect workers' interests in different industries, the first of the modem kind being the Madras
Textile Labour Union (1918) with B.P. Wadia as its president. But for safeguarding labour interests in general, the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was set up by N.M. Jos at Bombay in 1920. The growth of trade unions led increase in workers' strikes for fulfilment of demands li] increased wages, bonus and allowances. Such trade unio ism, however, could not gain ground in manufacturir industries, such as mining and textile industries.
Two important acts were enacted in 1926 and 19: respectively. The Trade Union Act (1926) established tra( unions as legal entities, provided for their registration ar granted them some rights and privileges. The Trade Di putes Act (1929) laid down Courts of Enquiry and Cond ation Board for solving disputes, forbade strikes in servic, of public utility without advance notice by each individu on strike, and called a halt to union activities aimed gaining sympathy or which were politically motivated.
The influence of communist ideology on trade uniOnism began sometime around 1929. As a result, the trac unionists developed ideological differences that separate them into two groups-the radicals desiring to advan( political purposes through trade unionism and the mode ates who denounced communist influence on the trad uniort movement. The moderates left the AITUC to fon the Indian Trade Union Federation (ITUF). Another grou separated itself from the AITUC to form the Red Trad Union Congress (RTUC). The division of the AITUC an the Meerut conspiracy trial of 1929, which saw prominer leaders of the working class movement arrested and facini a trial, were a real setback to the working class movemenl Trade Union activities suffered as a result. But attempts tl forge unity soon began as the government indulged iJ large-scale repression of workers during the Non-Coopera tion Movement. Efforts of N.M. Joshi, R.R. Bakhale ane others to bring about an agreement among trade unions resulted in the formation of National Trade Union Federa. tion (NTUF) in 1933.
Meanwhile, sensing the growing influence of the radical communists on labour movement, the British rulin! class appointed a royal commission-the Whitley Commi& sion-in 1928 to visit India and suggest measures for the improvement of labour relations and betterment of labour welfare. The commission, consisting of 11 members (six of them being Indians), visited India in 1929. The six Indian members of the commission were Srinivas S. Shastri, Ibrahim Rahimtullah, Kabeeruddin Ahmad, G.D. Birla, N.M. Joshi and D. Chaman Lall. The commission's important recommendations include:
(i) adoption of a policy of standard wages in Bombay cotton mills and jute industries of Bengal;
(ii) inclusion of both time-and-piece workers in the new
wage policy;
(iii) development of stable trade unions, appointment of labour officers and formation of works committees to promote cordial relations between the employer and the employees; and
(iv) provision for conciliation officers to settle disputes at an early stage.
The government remained silent for a long time over implementing any of the Whitley Commission's recommendations.
In the period 1935-39, there was an increase in union activities. Firstly, the Government of India Act of 1935 allowed labour representatives to be elected. The provincial Congress ministries that started functioning in 1937 laid down minimum living standards and general citizenship rights to promote the workers' conditions. And employers were gradually becoming less hostile towards trade unionsan aspect stressed by the ILO. As a result of large-scale renewed activities, the lTUF merged with the NTUF, and the RTUF became a part of AlTUC. The AlTUC and NTUF became affiliated to each other in 1938.
During the Second World War, industrial production in India touched new heights as foreign goods had stopped coming in due to the war and the British industries in the country began catering to war-time needs. Inspite of increased profits for the industries, workers were continued to be paid low wages. Surprisingly, strikes were few. This was because communist leaders favouring the war were averse to the idea of strikes during the war period. Also, trade unions suffered from a dearth of leaders who could successfully voice the concerns of the workers. The Defence of India Rules of the Government of India provided for adjudication of disputes followed by enforcement of the award. Representatives of governments, employers and the trade union movement came together to set up a collaborative machinery with a permanent status. Workers' rights were safeguarded by the National Service Ordinance, 1940. The Essential Services Maintenance Ordinance, 1941 protected workers from dismissal without proper reasons.
After the war, the prices and standards of living went up much to th'e discomfort of the workers. Trade union movements thus intensified. Trade unionism was also promoted by political parties and governments who realised that the labour movement had now assumed a prominent role. In 1947, amendments were made to the Trade Union Act. Now, it became compulsory for employers to recognise trade unions which in turn would satisfy certain conditions. More women members joined the ranks of the trade unions. Many local unions sprang up which, however, were not very successful in collective bargaining and ensuring enforcement of agreements. In contrast, large employees' organisations wielded immense power. The imbalance in the situation led to the creation of inter-state, regional workers' organisations. Increased industrial strikes and disputes resulting in reduced industrial production, the Indian Government after independence assembled the workers, employers and government representatives at an Industries Truce Conference in December 1947. The Industrial Disputes Act was passed in 1947 to set up a means for conciliation.
An investigation into the working conditions in factories was first demanded by the textile lobby of Lancashire. The First Factory (Industrial) Commission was set up in Bombay in 1875. Subsequently, the First Factory Act was passed in 1881, which largely aimed at prohibiting child labour while ignoring other important aspects such as women labour in factories. The ensuing disappointment was sought to be addressed by the Second Factory (Industrial) Commission of 1884. A conference of workers was called at Bombay by N.M. Lokhande for presenting a list of demands, including limited working hours, a weekly rest, a recess every day, compensation and punctual payment of wages, to the Commission. This is considered as the starting point of trade unionism in the country. The Second Factory Act of 1891 was another big disappointment in that though it stipulated working hours for women and children and fixed a weekly holiday, it failed to address concerns such as work hours for men.
The period 1918-24 witnessed the emergence of many trade unions to protect workers' interests in different industries, the first of the modem kind being the Madras
Textile Labour Union (1918) with B.P. Wadia as its president. But for safeguarding labour interests in general, the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was set up by N.M. Jos at Bombay in 1920. The growth of trade unions led increase in workers' strikes for fulfilment of demands li] increased wages, bonus and allowances. Such trade unio ism, however, could not gain ground in manufacturir industries, such as mining and textile industries.
Two important acts were enacted in 1926 and 19: respectively. The Trade Union Act (1926) established tra( unions as legal entities, provided for their registration ar granted them some rights and privileges. The Trade Di putes Act (1929) laid down Courts of Enquiry and Cond ation Board for solving disputes, forbade strikes in servic, of public utility without advance notice by each individu on strike, and called a halt to union activities aimed gaining sympathy or which were politically motivated.
The influence of communist ideology on trade uniOnism began sometime around 1929. As a result, the trac unionists developed ideological differences that separate them into two groups-the radicals desiring to advan( political purposes through trade unionism and the mode ates who denounced communist influence on the trad uniort movement. The moderates left the AITUC to fon the Indian Trade Union Federation (ITUF). Another grou separated itself from the AITUC to form the Red Trad Union Congress (RTUC). The division of the AITUC an the Meerut conspiracy trial of 1929, which saw prominer leaders of the working class movement arrested and facini a trial, were a real setback to the working class movemenl Trade Union activities suffered as a result. But attempts tl forge unity soon began as the government indulged iJ large-scale repression of workers during the Non-Coopera tion Movement. Efforts of N.M. Joshi, R.R. Bakhale ane others to bring about an agreement among trade unions resulted in the formation of National Trade Union Federa. tion (NTUF) in 1933.
Meanwhile, sensing the growing influence of the radical communists on labour movement, the British rulin! class appointed a royal commission-the Whitley Commi& sion-in 1928 to visit India and suggest measures for the improvement of labour relations and betterment of labour welfare. The commission, consisting of 11 members (six of them being Indians), visited India in 1929. The six Indian members of the commission were Srinivas S. Shastri, Ibrahim Rahimtullah, Kabeeruddin Ahmad, G.D. Birla, N.M. Joshi and D. Chaman Lall. The commission's important recommendations include:
(i) adoption of a policy of standard wages in Bombay cotton mills and jute industries of Bengal;
(ii) inclusion of both time-and-piece workers in the new
wage policy;
(iii) development of stable trade unions, appointment of labour officers and formation of works committees to promote cordial relations between the employer and the employees; and
(iv) provision for conciliation officers to settle disputes at an early stage.
The government remained silent for a long time over implementing any of the Whitley Commission's recommendations.
In the period 1935-39, there was an increase in union activities. Firstly, the Government of India Act of 1935 allowed labour representatives to be elected. The provincial Congress ministries that started functioning in 1937 laid down minimum living standards and general citizenship rights to promote the workers' conditions. And employers were gradually becoming less hostile towards trade unionsan aspect stressed by the ILO. As a result of large-scale renewed activities, the lTUF merged with the NTUF, and the RTUF became a part of AlTUC. The AlTUC and NTUF became affiliated to each other in 1938.
During the Second World War, industrial production in India touched new heights as foreign goods had stopped coming in due to the war and the British industries in the country began catering to war-time needs. Inspite of increased profits for the industries, workers were continued to be paid low wages. Surprisingly, strikes were few. This was because communist leaders favouring the war were averse to the idea of strikes during the war period. Also, trade unions suffered from a dearth of leaders who could successfully voice the concerns of the workers. The Defence of India Rules of the Government of India provided for adjudication of disputes followed by enforcement of the award. Representatives of governments, employers and the trade union movement came together to set up a collaborative machinery with a permanent status. Workers' rights were safeguarded by the National Service Ordinance, 1940. The Essential Services Maintenance Ordinance, 1941 protected workers from dismissal without proper reasons.
After the war, the prices and standards of living went up much to th'e discomfort of the workers. Trade union movements thus intensified. Trade unionism was also promoted by political parties and governments who realised that the labour movement had now assumed a prominent role. In 1947, amendments were made to the Trade Union Act. Now, it became compulsory for employers to recognise trade unions which in turn would satisfy certain conditions. More women members joined the ranks of the trade unions. Many local unions sprang up which, however, were not very successful in collective bargaining and ensuring enforcement of agreements. In contrast, large employees' organisations wielded immense power. The imbalance in the situation led to the creation of inter-state, regional workers' organisations. Increased industrial strikes and disputes resulting in reduced industrial production, the Indian Government after independence assembled the workers, employers and government representatives at an Industries Truce Conference in December 1947. The Industrial Disputes Act was passed in 1947 to set up a means for conciliation.
HARTOG COMMITTEE
HARTOG COMMITTEE
To look into deterioration of educational standards due the emergence of too many institutions, the Hartog COmmittee of 1929 recommended a selective system for adm sion in universities and channeling students into indusm and commercial courses after the Middle Stage.
WARDRA SCHEME
The Congress provincial ministries of 1937 focussed on preparing a national scheme for education. Gandhi proposed his Wardha Scheme for basic education that aimed at learning through activity. The details, as prepared by the Zakir Hussain Committee, focussed on manual productive work. As the Congress ministries soon resigned, the scheme could be taken up only after 1947.
SARGEANT PLAN
The Sargeant Plan, worked out by the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1944, called for elementary and higher secondary schools, universal, free and compulsory education for children in the 6-11 age group, and a six-year school course for the 11-17 age group.
Though the plan aimed to reconstruct education in 40 years, it w~s later restricted to 16 years. Sir John Sargeant was the Educational Adviser to the Government of India.
To look into deterioration of educational standards due the emergence of too many institutions, the Hartog COmmittee of 1929 recommended a selective system for adm sion in universities and channeling students into indusm and commercial courses after the Middle Stage.
WARDRA SCHEME
The Congress provincial ministries of 1937 focussed on preparing a national scheme for education. Gandhi proposed his Wardha Scheme for basic education that aimed at learning through activity. The details, as prepared by the Zakir Hussain Committee, focussed on manual productive work. As the Congress ministries soon resigned, the scheme could be taken up only after 1947.
SARGEANT PLAN
The Sargeant Plan, worked out by the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1944, called for elementary and higher secondary schools, universal, free and compulsory education for children in the 6-11 age group, and a six-year school course for the 11-17 age group.
Though the plan aimed to reconstruct education in 40 years, it w~s later restricted to 16 years. Sir John Sargeant was the Educational Adviser to the Government of India.
SADLER COMMISSION
SADLER COMMISSION The Sadler Commission was pointed to study the problems of the Calcutta Unive though its recommendations were applicable to ( universities as well. The commission's suggestions inclt a 12-year school course, a three-year degree course a(teJ Intermediate stage, more flexibility in laying down university regulations, centralised unitary-residential-tead bodies with autonomy to replace traditional Indian uni sities, facilities for teacher's training and female educat instituting university degrees and diplomas and app science and technology courses. Following the recomn dations of the commission, from 1916 to 1921, seven universities were set up. The control of the Educal Department was put in the hands of provincial minist after the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919). Th01 monetary problems acted as a setback to educatic! expansion under provincial governments, efforts of phil thropists continued to aid the cause of education.
Earlier, in 1913, the Government Resolution on E4 cation Policy accepted the task of eradicating illiteracy improving the quality of schools and establishing a univ sity in every province.
Earlier, in 1913, the Government Resolution on E4 cation Policy accepted the task of eradicating illiteracy improving the quality of schools and establishing a univ sity in every province.
CURZON'S REFORMS
CURZON'S REFORMS Under Curzon (1899-1905), education was restricted by official control and educated persons were motivated to express loyalty to the British rule. For improving the working and prospects of Indian Universities, a commission was appointed in 1902. It was headed by Sir Thomas Raleigh. The commission's report led to the Indian Universities Act which was passed in 1904.
Under the Act, following changes in the universities, administration were proposed.
(i) The universities were required to make provision for promotion of study and research.
(ii) The number of senators in a university shall be between 50 and 100.
(iii) A senator would normally hold office for a period of five years and not for life.
(iv) The government was to appoint most (senators in a university.
(v) The government was vested with powers to the regulations passed by the senate of a universit
(vi) The Act laid down stricter conditions of affiliation to new colleges and periodical inspection of such co by a syndicate.
(vii) The Governor-General-in-Council was emp01 to define territorial limits of a university and to decic 'affiliations of colleges.
The Act was condemned by the nationalists for various reasons. It increased the government control ove universities by (i) empowering the government to regulations passed by a university, (ii) allowing the ernment to appoint a majority of Fellows in a univE and (iii) empowering the Governor-General-in-Council decide a university's territorial limits and even the , ations between universities and colleges. The educat policies of Curzon, however, deserve credit for a note thy contribution-that of heralding the system of government ment grants for education. In 1902, Rupees five lakhs sanctioned on an annual basis for five years for hi education purposes.
Under the Act, following changes in the universities, administration were proposed.
(i) The universities were required to make provision for promotion of study and research.
(ii) The number of senators in a university shall be between 50 and 100.
(iii) A senator would normally hold office for a period of five years and not for life.
(iv) The government was to appoint most (senators in a university.
(v) The government was vested with powers to the regulations passed by the senate of a universit
(vi) The Act laid down stricter conditions of affiliation to new colleges and periodical inspection of such co by a syndicate.
(vii) The Governor-General-in-Council was emp01 to define territorial limits of a university and to decic 'affiliations of colleges.
The Act was condemned by the nationalists for various reasons. It increased the government control ove universities by (i) empowering the government to regulations passed by a university, (ii) allowing the ernment to appoint a majority of Fellows in a univE and (iii) empowering the Governor-General-in-Council decide a university's territorial limits and even the , ations between universities and colleges. The educat policies of Curzon, however, deserve credit for a note thy contribution-that of heralding the system of government ment grants for education. In 1902, Rupees five lakhs sanctioned on an annual basis for five years for hi education purposes.
HUNTER COMMISSION
HUNTER COMMISSION To evaluate the progress achieved under the Despatch of 1854, a commission under W.W. Hunter was set up in 1882. The commission's views, restricted to primary and secondary education, emphasised (i) the State's role in extending primary education; (ii) literary and practical learning for secondary-level education; (iii) that female education had been largely ignored; and (iv) a whole-hearted attempt to involve private enterprise in education. The couple of decades that followed witnessed great improvements in secondary and collegelevel education, not least owing to activities of Indian philanthropists. Many institutions were set up to promote oriental and Indian learning as well. Teaching-cum-examining universities sprang up, an example being the Punjab University established in 1822. In 1887, the Allahabad University was founded.
WOOD'S DESPATCH
WOOD'S DESPATCH
In 1854, Charles Wood prepared a despatch on an educational system for India which came to be called the Magna Carta of education in the country. According to Wood's scheme, the government needed to spread western education through English medium for higher education. But vernacular primary schools should be set up in rural areas. Its other recommendations were a grants-in-aid system to encourage private enterprise's involvement in education, a Department of Public Instruction in each of the five provinces, universities in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, teacher's training institutions and promotion of education for women. Most of Wood's proposals were implemented which led to westemisation of the Indian educational system.
In 1854, Charles Wood prepared a despatch on an educational system for India which came to be called the Magna Carta of education in the country. According to Wood's scheme, the government needed to spread western education through English medium for higher education. But vernacular primary schools should be set up in rural areas. Its other recommendations were a grants-in-aid system to encourage private enterprise's involvement in education, a Department of Public Instruction in each of the five provinces, universities in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, teacher's training institutions and promotion of education for women. Most of Wood's proposals were implemented which led to westemisation of the Indian educational system.
Orientalists Vs. Anglicists
Just when things were developing on the educational front, a major controversy erupted on the question of the kind of education to be imparted in colonial India. Views were split on this subject. The 10-member General Committee of Public Instruction had, on one hand, the Orientalists, who advocated the spread of Oriental literature and learning, and on the other, the Anglicists or the English Party, who approved promotion of western learning through the medium of English. The importance of encouraging the vernacular languages could not be ignored. Indians well acquainted with the classical and vernacular languages were required for administrative activities, the judicial department (as assessors to expound Hindu, Muslim laws), political correspondence with the various rulers, and communicating with the uneducated. However, the knowledge of English and western learning became essential for competing for various offices and earning emoluments. Many Indians, such as Raja Rammohan Roy, vociferously advocated western leaming and English education. Some enlightened Bengalis had set up the Calcutta Hindu College in 1817 for the purpose.
LORD MACAULAy'S EDUCATION POLICY
LORD MACAULAy'S EDUCATION POLICY In 1835, Lord Macaulay was made a law member of the GovernorGeneral-in-Council. Soon, he became the President of the General Committee of Public Institution. As the president of the committee, he put forward his education policy in Governor-General~in-Council on February 2, 1835, which ended the Orientalist-Anglicist row.
Under the Macaulay system of education (approved by Governor-General Bentinck), Persian was abolished as the court language and was substituted by English. Printing of English books were made free and these were available at a relatively low price. There was curtailment in the fund for oriental learning, while English education received more fund.
The approved Macaulayian system was an attempt to focus on educating the upper strata of societY through English and leaving it up to these people to promote vernacular languages and literature. Western learning would also seep through to the masses in this manner.
Under the Macaulay system of education (approved by Governor-General Bentinck), Persian was abolished as the court language and was substituted by English. Printing of English books were made free and these were available at a relatively low price. There was curtailment in the fund for oriental learning, while English education received more fund.
The approved Macaulayian system was an attempt to focus on educating the upper strata of societY through English and leaving it up to these people to promote vernacular languages and literature. Western learning would also seep through to the masses in this manner.
GENERAL COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC INSTITUTION
GENERAL COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC INSTITUTION
In 1823, a General Committee of Public Institution was appointed to look after the development of education in India. The Orientalists (see box) dominated the committee and advocated the promotion of Oriental learning rather than the Anglican one. However, different sections both in England and in India created mounting pressure on the Company to promote western education. As a result of the Orientalist-Anglicist controversy, the spread of education in India was halted until 1835, when Macaulay's resolution provided a somewhat clear picture of the British education policy.
In 1823, a General Committee of Public Institution was appointed to look after the development of education in India. The Orientalists (see box) dominated the committee and advocated the promotion of Oriental learning rather than the Anglican one. However, different sections both in England and in India created mounting pressure on the Company to promote western education. As a result of the Orientalist-Anglicist controversy, the spread of education in India was halted until 1835, when Macaulay's resolution provided a somewhat clear picture of the British education policy.
Development of Education
The traditional schools of learning in India suffered under the impact of colonial expansion. For one, the political tumult under the British regime could hardly foster concern on intellectual pursuits and secondly, the public endowments to these schools were not forthcoming any more. But later, pleas to promote learning by the Indian officers of the Company and others finally bore fruit. Warren Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasa in 1781 to promote Persian and Arabic studies. A Sanskrit college was established at Banaras in 1791. The Christian missionaries were also eager to spread education through English in order to teach western literature and preach Christianity. Lord Wellesley set up the Fort William College in 1800 to train the Company's civil servants. The college was, however, closed two years later.
THE 1813 ACT AND EDUCATION The English missionary activists, such as Charles Grant and William ORIENTALISTS V S. ANGLIOSTS Wilberforce, compelled the East India Company to give up its policy of non-intervention in ~ducation. For the first time, the British Parliament included in 1813 Charter ,a clause under which the Governor-General-in -Council was bound to keep a sum not less than one lakh rupees, for education. However, the Company used this fund for promoting Indian language and literature. The Charter allowed the Christian missionaries to spread their religious ideas in India. The greatest importance of the 1813 Act was that the Company for the first time acknowledged state responsibility for promotion of education in India.
THE 1813 ACT AND EDUCATION The English missionary activists, such as Charles Grant and William ORIENTALISTS V S. ANGLIOSTS Wilberforce, compelled the East India Company to give up its policy of non-intervention in ~ducation. For the first time, the British Parliament included in 1813 Charter ,a clause under which the Governor-General-in -Council was bound to keep a sum not less than one lakh rupees, for education. However, the Company used this fund for promoting Indian language and literature. The Charter allowed the Christian missionaries to spread their religious ideas in India. The greatest importance of the 1813 Act was that the Company for the first time acknowledged state responsibility for promotion of education in India.
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